Muslim immigration was not entirely spontaneous. Fearing another Western-oriented, non-Muslim population like the Armenian one, Ottoman rulers encouraged Muslims to move to Palestine. Sultan Abdülhamid II (r. 1876-1909), once commented that “We cannot view Jewish immigration favorably. We could only open our borders to those who belong to the sa

from the river of Egypt [i.e., the Nile]* to Jaffa, – descendants of those of 1831, and who continue unmixed.” In 2013, Israeli scholars Gideon Kressel and Reuven Aharoni noted that their descendants still “have not assimilated entirely into the local Arab population.” The same applies to several other communities, notably the Circassians T

Indonesia and Colombia, despite their geographic distance and differing geopolitical contexts, share significant potential for mutually beneficial cooperation. While trade imbalances, limited engagement, and diplomatic barriers to investment pose challenges, both nations have the opportunity to build on their existing relationship by prioritizing e

To address trade imbalances, Indonesia and Colombia should prioritize the diversification of their export portfolios. Both countries could benefit from increased collaboration in the agriculture, manufacturing, and energy sectors. Colombia’s emerging manufacturing sector could find opportunities in Indonesia’s growing demand for machinery and i

Both nations have worked together in forums promoting South-South cooperation and have consistently expressed support for each other’s stances on issues such as sovereignty and global peace. The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on political consultations in 2015 marked a milestone, symbolizing both nations’ desire to deepen bila